Japan — Tokyo and Osaka, Meiji period (1868–1912); restaurants in Ginza and Shinsaibashi districts were early yoshoku centers
The Meiji Restoration (1868) ended 250 years of Japanese self-isolation under the Tokugawa shogunate and opened Japan to dramatic Western culinary influence. Emperor Meiji actively promoted meat-eating — symbolically eating beef on New Year's Day 1872 to break the Buddhist prohibition that had kept the Japanese largely meat-free for twelve centuries. The government established yoshoku (Western food) as a pillar of modernisation policy: state banquets adopted French cuisine, military rations incorporated beef, and restaurants serving beef stew (bifu shichu) and breaded cutlets opened in Tokyo and Osaka. These Western techniques were filtered through Japanese aesthetics to produce hybrid yoshoku dishes — tonkatsu, hayashi rice, omurice, curry rice, and korokke — that constitute a beloved parallel cuisine today.
Rich, umami-forward Western-style sauces adapted to Japanese palates: sweeter than European originals, soy-deepened, served over or alongside white rice
Yoshoku dishes retain Japanese sensibility despite Western origins: smaller portions than their European counterparts, heavier use of soy-based sauces and demi-glace, accompaniment with rice rather than bread, and the Japanese preference for clear textural contrast (crunchy breadcrumb coating vs. soft interior in tonkatsu). The Meiji government's establishment of Western cooking schools and military food science programs created the infrastructure for this transformation.
Yoshoku restaurants (yōshokuya) preserve their Meiji-era menus with remarkable fidelity. The best tonkatsu in Japan uses Meiji-era technique: panko breaded, fried twice for structural crunch, served with shredded cabbage (tonkatsu introduced the concept of eating raw cabbage widely in Japan), and demi-glace-based tonkatsu sauce. Study the Meiji and Taisho-era recipe books (kateiyori books) for the original Japanese reception of Western cooking.
Treating yoshoku as simply 'Japanese imitation' of Western food — these are genuinely hybrid creations with their own evolved logic. Ignoring the political dimension: Meiji leaders explicitly associated beef consumption with strength, modernity, and national power. Forgetting that Buddhism's meat prohibition had very different effects in different classes — samurai sometimes ate wild game despite the rules, while court and clergy were strictly vegetarian.
Ishige, Naomichi — The History and Culture of Japanese Food; Cwiertka, Katarzyna — Modern Japanese Cuisine