Fijian Techniques

The kava root is dried, then pounded or ground to a fine powder. The powder is placed in a cloth strainer (traditionally a hibiscus-bark cloth) and water is added. The mixture is kneaded and wrung through the cloth into a tanoa (large wooden bowl). The resulting liquid is murky grey-brown, earthy-tasting, and produces a numbing sensation on the tongue within seconds. Kava is served in a bilo (coconut shell cup) and drunk in a single gulp. The ceremony — who serves, who drinks first, how the cup is presented — is as important as the beverage itself.

Fresh fish (mahi-mahi, walu/Spanish mackerel, or snapper) is cubed and marinated in fresh lime or lemon juice for one to two hours until the exterior turns opaque from acid denaturation. Finely diced onion, tomato, capsicum, and chili are added. Then coconut cream — fresh-pressed from mature coconut — is stirred through the mixture. Served chilled, often in a halved coconut shell. Kokoda is bright, creamy, tangy, and profoundly refreshing — the perfect contrast to the heavy, smoky richness of lovo-cooked food.

Fresh reef fish (snapper, grouper, or mahi-mahi) is placed in a pot with freshly pressed coconut cream, sliced onion, garlic, ginger, and chili. The fish is gently simmered — never boiled — until just cooked through. The coconut cream reduces slightly, forming a rich sauce. Served with steamed taro or cassava. The technique is extreme simplicity: the fish must be fresh, the coconut must be quality, and the heat must be gentle.

Fresh taro leaves are washed, stems removed, and simmered in coconut milk until completely tender and the coconut has reduced into a rich sauce. Salt, sometimes garlic and onion. The leaves break down into a dark, glossy, creamy mass that resembles creamed spinach but with a deeper, more mineral flavour. Served as a side dish with grilled fish, lovo meats, or simply with cassava or rice.

A pit is dug and lined with river stones. A fire of coconut husks and hardwood is built on top to heat the stones. When the stones are uniformly hot, the fire remnants are cleared and the food — pork, chicken, fish, taro, cassava, kumala (sweet potato), and palusami parcels — all wrapped in banana leaves, is placed on the stones. Everything is covered with more leaves, wet sacking, and earth. After two to four hours, the lovo is uncovered and the food emerges tender, smoky, and infused with the earthy, mineral character of the heated stones.

Fresh cassava is peeled and finely grated. Mixed with freshly grated coconut, ginger, sugar, and sometimes cardamom or cloves. The mixture is shaped into small flat cakes, wrapped in banana leaves, and steamed until dense and chewy. The banana leaf imparts a subtle green, vegetal aroma. The finished vakalolo is dense, moist, and deeply satisfying — sweet without being cloying, with the warmth of ginger and the richness of coconut.

Fresh fish (snapper, mahi-mahi) is simmered in coconut milk with a curry paste of turmeric, cumin, coriander, ginger, garlic, onion, and chili. Tomatoes provide acid. The curry is not heavy or thick like many Indian curries — it is a light, coconut-based braise. Served with rice or cassava.

Step 1: Select a mature coconut (niu, approximately 10–12 months on the tree). The husk is hard and brown. The meat inside is thick, white, and firm — not the thin, gelatinous flesh of a young green drinking coconut. Step 2: Husk the coconut. In the Pacific method, the husked nut is struck against a sharpened wooden or metal stake driven into the ground. Step 3: Crack the shell. Strike the equator of the husked shell with the back of a heavy knife or rock. The shell splits into two halves. Retain the water inside (it is drunk fresh or used in cooking, but it is not coconut milk — it is coconut water, a different product). Step 4: Grate the flesh. Using a coconut grater (Fijian: tuai ni niu; Samoan: tuai; Tongan: tuai — cognate terms across Polynesia), the white flesh is grated directly from the half-shell into a bowl. The grater is a serrated metal blade mounted on a low wooden stool. Step 5: First pressing (cream). The grated flesh is gathered in a cloth or fibre mesh and squeezed firmly over a bowl. The thick, opaque white liquid that emerges is first-pressing coconut cream — lolo, pe'epe'e, gata. This is the preferred product: high-fat, rich, sweet. Step 6: Second pressing (milk). Warm water is added to the squeezed gratings, mixed thoroughly, and squeezed again. The thinner liquid is coconut milk — lower fat, used for soups, stews, and long-cooking preparations.

The ingredient (green banana, taro, breadfruit, leafy greens, or fish) is peeled and cut into pieces. In a pot over medium heat, fresh coconut cream (pe'epe'e, first pressing) is brought to a gentle simmer. The ingredient is added to the simmering cream. Salt is added. The pot is cooked uncovered on low-to-medium heat, stirring occasionally, for 15–30 minutes (vegetables) or 10–15 minutes (fish). The key technical moment: the cream reduces, thickens, and begins to separate slightly — the fat rises to the surface as a clear, golden oil while the solids coat the food. This separation (called the "breaking" of coconut cream) is intentional in fa'alifu — it indicates that the cream has concentrated sufficiently. In Western cooking, separated cream is a failure; in Samoan fa'alifu, it is the goal. The food is served in its cream sauce, with the separated oil pooling on top. Fa'alifu fa'i (green banana): the bananas soften and absorb the cream, becoming creamy and sweet. Fa'alifu talo (taro): the taro develops a sticky, dense texture and a nutty flavour.

Fresh reef fish — yellowfin tuna, wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri), or parrotfish (a reef species that is abundant around Cook Islands lagoons) — is filleted, skinned, and cubed (1–2 cm pieces). The cubes are placed in a bowl and dressed with fresh lime juice. Marination: 15–30 minutes, until the surface turns opaque. The lime juice is drained. Fresh coconut cream (from hand-squeezed grated coconut — the same technique as Fijian lolo, ) is added. The distinctive Cook Islands additions: freshly grated ginger root (Zingiber officinale, approximately 1 tablespoon per 500g fish), diced tomato, finely sliced onion, diced cucumber, sliced spring onion, a moderate amount of fresh chilli, and salt. The ginger is the marker — it adds a warm, peppery sharpness that distinguishes ika mata from all its corridor neighbours. The dish is served immediately at cool temperature.

Fresh reef fish (walu/Spanish mackerel, Scomberomorus commerson, is the preferred choice; mahi-mahi, Coryphaena hippurus, is common; any firm white reef fish works) is filleted, skinned, and cut into 1–2 cm cubes. The cubes are placed in a bowl and covered with fresh lime juice (lemon is a secondary choice). Marination time: 20–45 minutes. The acid denatures the surface proteins — the fish turns from translucent to opaque white. The fish is drained (this step is where kokoda departs from ceviche — the acid is removed, not left to continue denaturing). Fresh coconut cream (lolo, extracted from grated mature coconut flesh) is added generously. Diced tomato, finely sliced spring onion, diced fresh chilli (bird's eye or similar), and a pinch of salt are folded through. The mixture is served immediately in a coconut shell half or a bowl, at cool (not cold) temperature. Refrigeration is a modern accommodation — the technique predates it.

The root vegetable (taro, yam, or manioc — the choice indicates the island and the occasion; yam lap lap is the most prestigious) is peeled and grated on a rough stone or metal grater into a fine paste. This grating is the most labour-intensive step — a single lap lap requires 2–4 kg of grated root vegetable. The paste is spread onto a bed of banana leaves in a layer approximately 3–4 cm thick. Coconut cream is poured over the paste. Protein is arranged on top: island cabbage leaves (Abelmoschus manihot, bele), chicken pieces, flying fox (Pteropus spp., in some islands), or canned meat. More banana leaves are folded over the top to create a sealed parcel. The parcel is placed on a bed of hot stones (either in an earth oven or on an open stone arrangement). More hot stones are placed on top of the parcel — the lap lap cooks from both below and above. Cooking time: 1.5–2 hours. The result: a dense, firm, slightly translucent cake that is sliced and served.

The mature coconut (niu, Cocos nucifera, at least 10 months on the tree — green drinking coconuts are too young) is husked by striking the fibrous outer shell against a sharpened stake driven into the ground. The hard inner shell is cracked open (traditionally by striking the equator with the back of a heavy knife). The white coconut flesh is grated using a metal grater called a tuai ni niu — a serrated half-moon blade mounted on a low wooden stool. The cook sits on the stool and grates the coconut flesh directly from the half-shell into a bowl. The grated flesh is gathered in a cloth (traditionally a woven coconut-fibre cloth) and squeezed by hand over a bowl. First pressing: the thick, rich cream that emerges is lolo — high-fat, white, and opaque. This is used for kokoda , rourou , vakalolo , and as a finishing sauce. Second pressing: warm water is added to the squeezed gratings, mixed, and squeezed again. This thinner liquid is coconut milk — used for soups, stews, and long-cooked preparations where the high fat of first pressing would separate or become oily. The distinction between first pressing (cream) and second pressing (milk) is fundamental to Pacific cooking and is lost entirely when canned coconut products are used.

A pit is dug approximately 1 metre deep and 1.5–2 metres across. River stones (volcanic basalt preferred — limestone explodes) are arranged in a single layer at the base. Hardwood logs (coconut husk, breadfruit wood, or mangrove) are stacked above the stones and fired. The fire burns for 1.5–2 hours until the stones glow white-hot and the wood has collapsed to coals. Excess coals are raked out. Food is wrapped in banana leaves (sometimes coconut fronds) in individual parcels: root vegetables (dalo/taro, cassava, kumala/sweet potato) go directly on the stones. Proteins (whole fish, chicken, pork, palusami parcels) go on top. The pit is covered with banana leaves, then woven coconut-frond mats, then earth — creating a sealed oven. Cooking time: 3–6 hours depending on volume. The lovo is opened communally; the first parcel is offered to the chief or guest of honour.

Young taro leaves (lu, Colocasia esculenta) are washed and de-stemmed. Each leaf is placed flat. A portion of corned beef (from a tin — the Tongan preference is for the fattier, chunkier varieties from New Zealand or Brazil) is placed in the centre. Diced onion is added. The leaf is folded over the filling, forming a parcel approximately 10 cm × 8 cm. The parcel is placed in a baking dish (or, traditionally, arranged in a coconut-shell bowl). Fresh coconut cream is poured over the parcels — generously, so the parcels are half-submerged. The dish is covered and baked: in the umu for 2–4 hours, or in a conventional oven at 180°C / 355°F for 45–60 minutes. The taro leaves soften and absorb the coconut cream and corned beef fat. The result: dark green leaf parcels in a thick, meaty, coconut-fat sauce. The corned beef melts into the cream, contributing salt, umami, and rendered beef fat.

Fresh fish is filleted, skinned, and cut into 1–2 cm cubes. Skipjack tuna (atu, Katsuwonus pelamis) is the preferred species; yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) is also used; reef fish (parrotfish, emperor) are acceptable but considered less prestigious. The cubes are placed in a bowl and covered with fresh lime juice (or lemon). Marination: 15–30 minutes. The acid turns the fish surface opaque white. The juice is drained (some Samoan cooks leave a small amount for added sharpness). Freshly squeezed coconut cream (pe'epe'e, the Samoan term for first-pressing lolo) is added. Diced onion, diced tomato, sliced fresh chilli (Samoan preparations are hotter than Fijian kokoda), chopped cucumber (a modern addition), and salt are folded through. Sea grapes (limu, a type of marine algae in the Caulerpa genus) are sometimes added for texture and salinity. The dish is served immediately at cool temperature.

Fresh fish — yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) is the preferred choice; wahoo (ono, Acanthocybium solandri) and mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus) are also used — is filleted, skinned, and cut into 1.5–2 cm cubes. The cubes are placed in a bowl and covered with fresh lemon or lime juice. Marination: 20–40 minutes. When the fish surface turns opaque white, the excess juice is drained. Fresh coconut cream (lolo) is added — in Tongan proportions, the cream should generously coat every piece (more cream-to-fish ratio than Samoan oka). Diced tomato, finely sliced onion, diced cucumber, sliced spring onion, a small amount of fresh chilli, and salt are folded through. Capsicum (green or red bell pepper) is a common Tongan addition not found in the Samoan or Fijian versions. The dish is served immediately, ideally in a coconut-shell half or a glass bowl.

Young taro leaves (lau talo, Colocasia esculenta — the youngest, tenderest leaves from the centre of the plant) are washed and de-stemmed. Each leaf is placed flat, slightly overlapping to form a cup approximately 15 cm in diameter. A tablespoon of diced onion is placed in the centre. Fresh coconut cream (pe'epe'e) is poured over the onion — approximately 3–4 tablespoons per parcel. Salt is added. The leaves are folded over the filling, enclosing it completely. The parcel is wrapped in a second layer of larger taro leaves or banana leaf, then tied with a strip of banana bark or string. The parcels are placed in the umu on the top layer (gentlest heat) and cooked for 2–4 hours. In the oven method: 180°C / 355°F for 45–60 minutes. The result: the taro leaves become silky-soft, the coconut cream reduces into a thick, sweet, onion-infused sauce, and the calcium oxalate in the raw leaves is fully neutralised by the prolonged heat. Variants: some families add corned beef (a Tongan influence), tinned fish (a modern economy addition), or curry powder (an Indian-Fijian influence).

Fresh yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares, the prestige species — Tahiti sits in one of the world's richest tuna-fishing grounds) is filleted and cut into 1–1.5 cm cubes. The cubes are placed in a bowl and covered with fresh lime juice (not lemon — lime is the Tahitian standard). Marination: 15–30 minutes, until the surface turns opaque. The lime juice is not drained — this is a key Tahitian distinction from the Samoan and Fijian versions, where the acid is partially or fully drained. Coconut milk (not cream — the Tahitian version uses second-pressing coconut, which is thinner and less fatty) is added directly to the lime-fish mixture. Diced tomato, diced cucumber, finely sliced onion, grated carrot (a Tahitian addition not found elsewhere on the thread), and salt are folded through. The dish is served immediately, in a bowl, with the lime-coconut liquid serving as a drinkable sauce. The French colonial influence is visible in the plating: poisson cru is served in glass bowls rather than coconut shells, and the garnish is more finely cut than in Samoan or Tongan versions.

Fresh dalo (taro) leaves are stripped of their central stem (the stem contains higher concentrations of calcium oxalate, which causes throat irritation if not fully cooked). The leaves are washed and torn or cut into broad strips. In the stovetop method: the leaves are placed in a pot, covered with fresh coconut cream (lolo), and simmered on low heat for 45–90 minutes until the leaves are completely soft and the coconut cream has reduced to a thick, rich sauce. Salt is added. Onion may be added (a post-contact addition). In the lovo method: the leaves and coconut cream are wrapped together in banana leaves, forming a parcel called vakalolo ni rourou, and placed in the earth oven. The lovo method takes 3–4 hours and produces a more concentrated, caramelised result. The calcium oxalate in the raw leaves (which causes intense itching and burning in the mouth and throat) is neutralised by prolonged cooking — this is a genuine food-safety technique, not an optional step.

A pit is dug roughly 1 metre deep. Hardwood — ideally mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium) — is burned down to coals. Volcanic stones or dense river stones are heated in the fire until white-hot (approximately 800°C / 1,470°F at the stone surface). Food is layered in woven harakeke baskets: meat on the bottom (closest to the stones), root vegetables above, lighter items on top. Wet cloth — traditionally soaked in water, sometimes in seawater for coastal hāngi — covers the baskets. Earth is shovelled over the top to seal the pit. The sealed oven steams for four to eight hours depending on volume. The result is food with a distinctive smoky-earthy flavour that no oven or smoker replicates — the taste of the ground itself entering the food.

A pit is dug approximately 60–90 cm deep (shallower than a Fijian lovo, which tends to be larger and deeper). River stones are arranged in a bed at the base. Coconut husks and hardwood logs are stacked above the stones and fired. Burning time: 1–2 hours until the stones are white-hot. Excess coals are raked aside. Food is arranged in layers: root vegetables (taro, breadfruit, banana) go directly on the stones. Proteins (whole pig, chicken, fish) go next. Palusami parcels are placed on top, where the heat is gentlest. The umu is covered with banana leaves and breadfruit leaves in overlapping layers, then woven coconut-frond mats, then a final layer of leaves. No earth is used to seal the Samoan umu — this is a key distinction from the Māori hāngi and Hawaiian imu, which use earth. The absence of earth covering means the Samoan umu loses heat faster and cooks at a lower sustained temperature, producing a gentler, more steamed result. Cooking time: 2–4 hours for a standard Sunday to'ona'i.

Cassava roots are peeled, washed, and finely grated (the grating is essential — chunks of cassava produce a different texture). The grated cassava is mixed with freshly extracted coconut cream and sugar (or, traditionally, reduced coconut cream which caramelises naturally). The mixture is spooned onto banana-leaf squares, folded into parcels approximately 10 cm × 5 cm, and secured with coconut-fibre ties or toothpicks. The parcels are either baked in a lovo (earth oven) for 2–3 hours, baked in a conventional oven at 180°C / 355°F for 40–50 minutes, or steamed for 45–60 minutes. The result: a dense, sticky, sweet block with a texture between a pudding and a firm jelly. The banana leaf imparts a faint green, vegetal note. Variants: vakalolo ni vudi uses mashed ripe plantain instead of cassava, producing a sweeter, softer result with a more pronounced tropical-fruit character.